phonology - /ð/ → /d/ shift in English


As a result of a /d/ → /ð/ shift, fæder became father, hider became hither and togædere became together, giving us our modern English forms.


However, I know that murder and burden have archaic forms- murther and burthen. This means a shift from /ð/ → /d/ also happened, doesn't it?


The High German Consonant Shift turned /ð/ →/d/, a change that affects modern German and Dutch. The English that and Icelandic það versus the German das highlight this change, but it also went the other way- German tot versus English dead.


My questions:


1.) When did this consonant shift happen in English? Etymonline mentions 12c.


2.) What are some more examples of the /ð/ → /d/ in English words?


3.) How is the shift mirrored in other Germanic languages?




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